[1] Yu J Z, Ye S X. Symbols: Language and Art [M]. Xi’an: Shaanxi Normal University Publishing Group, 2018: 3, 27.

[2] Shen C W. Research on Ancient Chinese Clothing [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Bookstore Publishing House, 2005: 4, 18.

[3] Song Z H. Social Life History of the Xia and Shang Dynasties [M]. Beijing: China Social Sciences Press, 1994: 381.

[4] Lin Y T. Selected Works of Lin Yutang [M]. Wuhan: Changjiang Literature & Art Publishing House, 2014: 87-90.

 [5] When measuring the human body, Western clothing adjusts to different body curves, with bust, waist, and hip measurements accurate to within 3 centimeters. It mostly adopts curved and diagonal cutting; its three-dimensional shape is mainly achieved through dart stitching or transfer, adding pleats and split lines, and reducing fabric allowances to handle the size differences between bust, waist, and hips, making the clothing fit the body and highlight three-dimensional curves. See:Zhao F. The Eastward Spread of Western Suits [D]. Hohhot: Inner Mongolia Normal University, 2013.

[6] Description of the “inverted wide-sleeved” qipao in Xiao Jizong’s Historical Materials of the New Life Movement: “Around the 15th and 16th years of the Republic of China (1926-1927), on the eve of the Northern Expedition of the National Revolutionary Army, the trend of women wearing robes became increasingly popular. However, the styles were mostly conservative, with loose waists, sleeves reaching the wrists, and lengths above the ankles. Because they were similar to men’s clothing, only fashionable women dared to try them at that time.” See:  Zhou S F. Clothing of the Republic of China: Old Systems and New Fashions [M]. Guangzhou: Nanfang Daily Press, 2014: 21.

[7] Juan B. Changes in Women’s Decorations (Part Two) [N]. Shanghai: Republic Daily, 1927-01-08.

[8] Chang E L. The Age of Clothing [J]. Gossips, 2002: 79-81. (Published by Zhejiang Literature & Art Publishing House, Hangzhou)

[9] In traditional Chinese clothing cutting, the term “waist area” (yaoshen) refers to the position from the chest to the waist, which is a general term for three measurements: bust circumference, underbust circumference, and waist circumference.

[10]”Separated body” and “separated sleeves” refer to cutting the front and back panels of the garment, as well as the body and sleeves separately. “Dart” is a cutting technique that involves proportionally cutting fabric on a single panel according to the curved surfaces of different parts of the human body to fit the body curves.

[11] Bao Mingxin argues that by the late 1930s, the cutting method and structure of the qipao had been Westernized; bust darts, waist darts, shoulder seams, and set-in sleeves made the shoulders, armpits, and other parts of the qipao more fitted. This improved qipao was representative and marked the finalization stage of the qipao. However, after chronological research, Zhu Bowei believes that these three indicators could not have appeared simultaneously on a specific qipao earlier than the late 1940s. This paper adopts Zhu Bowei’s chronological conclusion on the qipao. See:  Bao M X. Shanghai-Style Qipao in the First Half of the 20th Century [J]. Art & Design, 2000(5): 11-12.Zhu B W. Chronological Textual Research on the Structural Evolution of the Qipao in Three Periods [J]. Journal of Textile Research, 2017, 38(5): 115-121.

[12] Published in 1947, the third edition of Complete Book of Cutting by Bu Zhen was a professional textbook officially approved and issued by the Central Ministry of Education at that time. The cutting illustrations of the “qipao” in the book are consistent with the qipao images in Liangyou Pictorial of the same period. At this time, the “stolen lapel” cutting method and the narrowing of the waist appeared in qipao cutting. Published in 1953, Yongfu Cutting Method, a clothing production teaching manual compiled by Dai Yongfu, heir of the “Hongbang Tailors,” recorded the narrowing of the qipao’s hem following the narrowing of the waist. These two verifiable clothing teaching manuals show that the qipao’s style did not deviate from the traditional “cross-plane” cutting structure. See: [13] Zhu B W. A Study on the Structural Evolution of the Qipao in Three Historical Periods [D]. Beijing: Beijing Institute of Fashion Technology, 2017.

[13] Dai Yongfu (?-1999) went to Shanghai to apprentice at the age of 13. Later, he opened an independent clothing workshop near the City God Temple in Nanshi, Shanghai. After 1949, he was transferred to the Shanghai Clothing Research Institute to engage in clothing scientific research and education. His works include Yongfu Cutting Method and How to Learn Cutting.

[14] Dai Y F. Yongfu Cutting Method [M]. Shanghai: Yongfu Clothing Cutting Special Training Class, 1953: 46.

[15] The 1956 book Women’s Spring Clothing published by Shanghai Culture Publishing House included illustrations of the “chest dart” technique. The long-sleeved qipao in Clothing Material-Saving Cutting and Matching Method compiled by Shanghai Fuzhuan Company in 1958 contained structural diagrams of draping techniques such as “chest dart,” “waist dart,” and “broken shoulder seam.”

 [16] Dai Yongfu. Yongfu Cutting Method [M]. Yongfu Clothing Cutting Special Training Class. Shanghai, 1953; Self-Taught Qipao and Short Clothing, a textbook printed and distributed by vocational training classes in 1953; Qipao Cutting Method, a textbook of the Beijing-Shanghai Qipao Training Class in Taiwan in 1960—all included structural diagrams of draping techniques such as “chest dart,” “waist dart,” “separated body,” and “separated sleeves.” See:Zhu B W. A Study on the Structural Evolution of the Qipao in Three Historical Periods [D]. Beijing: Beijing Institute of Fashion Technology, 2017.

[17] Cui A M. A Study on Qipao Production and Body Shape [M]. Taipei: Jialiang Printing Industry Co., Ltd., 2001: Appendix 2. (Citing Shi S Y’s viewpoint in Functional Western-Style Cutting of Qipao)